THE MAURYAN ECONOMY
The pre-Mauryan period it transformed the pastoral economy into an agriculture-based village economy. This stimulated exchange, followed by the development of exchange routes, taxation, currency, and administration.
The Mauryan Empire was primarily funded by the tax collected from agriculture, i.e., land revenue. The administration’s primary objective was the efficient collection of revenue in the form of tax. The State oversaw the clearing of the forest in order to collect the forest resources and stop any arbitrary expansion of agriculture. Agriculture was the primary revenue form, but trade sectors started increasing rapidly. Animal herds kept by villages were included in the list of things assessed and taxed. Government oversight of commercial operations, particularly in coastal areas, was enforced, and taxes, tolls, and customs fees were collected whenever feasible.
Apart from State-owned agricultural entities, private land owners or cultivators paid the state various taxes. They provided their Land to smaller farmers and collected rent from them. The State acknowledged these land owners Farmers were freed from the tax and harvest-collecting burdens of the provincial rulers and preferred the centrally administered, severe, but equitable taxing system of the Arthashastra principles.
Several iron implements, including socketed axes, sickles, and ploughshares, were discovered during excavations. These instruments must have made it simple to remove the dense woods of the Eastern Ganges Plains and improved agricultural productivity.
Most developing agricultural cultures need reliable, affordable labor supplies to produce food, grains, and other goods in addition to superior technologies.
Understanding the social foundation of production requires a thorough understanding of how this labor is sustained and regulated. Paddy agriculture has started to take on significant importance in the middle Ganges Valley. This needed more labor than the peasant family could provide during specific planting and harvesting seasons since it was labor-intensive. We also discovered that cultivating fresh Land was given much attention. According to Arthashastra, the State should promote and organize the clearance of new areas or abandoned fields and settle shudra farmers from neighboring kingdoms or bring them from overcrowded or subpar places to reside on these territories. One hundred fifty thousand people migrated after the Kalinga War and became a part of this scheme. Working groups like carpenters, masonries, and merchants were also settled above to settle the new areas. Shudra settlers received an exemption from tax, some financial concession, and the supply of animals, seeds, and tools. This allowed them to cultivate uncultivated Land. Similar measures were employed to repopulate decaying or abandoned towns. Taxes were later imposed on these lands. The newly populated territories frequently comprised a portion of the crown lands, also called the sita lands. They were occasionally given to former village authorities for cultivation. Since these communities were located on the crown territory, thus it goes without saying that the King and his officials had tight supervision over them. Based on the fertility of the Land, tax varied from one-fourth to one-sixth of the output.
In his work Indika, the Greek author Megasthenes describes the Maurya Empire and notes that slavery was outlawed in Indian civilization. However, the truth is far ahead. His idea of slavery was different from what was exhibited in reality. He has Athenian Slavery in mind. The definition of slavery, bonded labor, and enslaved person differed significantly in the manuscripts found from those times. Domestic enslaved people were a common sight in well-to-do houses, and while they belonged to a lower caste than their owners, they were not untouchables since, otherwise, they would not have been allowed into the homes of the upper castes. Slave labor was also utilized by several craft guilds and in the mines.
A man may become an enslaved person by birth, by selling himself freely, by being caught in battle, or as the consequence of a legal sentence, according to more than one source that lists the criteria that lead to slavery. The legal status of the enslaver and the enslaved person was well established, and slavery was an accepted institution. (For instance, if an enslaved woman gave birth to her owner a son, not only was she legally free, but the kid also had the legal status of the master’s son. In India, a slave might purchase his freedom or be released willingly by his owner; if he had previously been an Arya, he might even revert to this position on the condition of completion of his term.
The Arthashastra took great care in constructing the State’s revenue structure since land revenue served as the foundation of the Mauryan economy. Due to the fact that soil fertility differed from location to location, tax varied accordingly. Mauryan Empire could only sustain its administrative apparatus and army by collecting taxes. The Lumbini edict of Ashoka, the birthplace of Buddha, mentions two types of the tax system. Firstly, land tax – Bhaga was the primary revenue source. It was levied at the rate of 1/6th of the produce. Secondly, Bali was based on the quality and quantity of the produce. Therefore, it was levied at a rate of 1/4th of the produce. According to the Lumbini Edict of Asoka, he absolved the hamlet of paying the Bali tax and decreased the Bhaga tax when he visited Lumbini, the birthplace of the Buddha. However, even Ashoka’s deep reverence for the Buddha did not convince the monarch to exempt the community from paying taxes.
Pindakara, which means “a stack of taxes,” may refer to a tax gathered collectively from a village. Villages frequently had to furnish food to the royal army traveling through their regions, which inevitably added to their load. The precise nature of hiranya is likewise unknown, although given that the word translates to “gold,” it was undoubtedly a levy paid in cash. The government treasury had the right to impose taxes on shepherds and livestock producers based on the quantity and output of their herds. Other activities were also subject to taxes, often referred to as kara. Corvee (forced labor) is sometimes used to translate vishti, a different sort of tax that was paid for by the State in labor. In comparison to other taxes, vishti is more individual. At this time, it is frequently brought up about the production of crafts, as artisans provide the government with a set quantity of free labor.
Wherever the State was in charge of supplying irrigation, taxes for water supply for irrigation were routinely collected. In order to provide the area with water, one of Chandragupta’s governors had a dam constructed over a river close to Girnar in western India, known as Sudarshana Tadaga. However, the Arthashastra preferred that irrigation be managed privately. So, even though the building and upkeep of reservoirs, tanks, and canals were considered part of the governing duties, there is no evidence to support the claim that the control of irrigation was a function of the government, thus promoting autocracy. The villages that were exempt from taxes were referred to as pariharaka. These villages contributed soldiers to the army and the supply of grains, livestock, and gold.
The samaharta was in charge of assessing land revenue, which the Mauryas gave a considerable deal of importance to. The State’s treasury was under the supervision of the sannidhata. As the money was also received in gifts, it was the latter’s responsibility to provide storage space.
The fertility of the Land was high, resulting in two crops a year. However, oral tradition suggests the presence of Famine during the Mauryan period. An inscription from the Mahasthan, dated to the Mauryan period, suggests measures were to be taken during the Famine. Twelve years of Famine or popularly known as ‘Dvadasavarsha Panjam.’
The Mauryan empire had a robust economic foundation thanks to the growth of the agrarian economy, especially in the Ganges Valley. Nevertheless, the development of the commercial sector allowed it to expand its resource base to other regions of the nation. The security that the Mauryan administration offered allowed for a flourishing of internal trade. North-west India was the crossroads of important commercial routes to West Asia and Central Asia. The Ganges River and the foothills of the Himalayas served as the primary commercial routes in northern India. This allowed connections between important locations like Rajagriha in Magadha and Kausambi, close to modern-day Allahabad. The Mauryas’ capital, Pataliputra, had a particularly advantageous position and was connected to all four directions by river and road.
Megasthenes cites the artisans as one of the seven castes/classes he saw during his visit to India. The well-known guilds of the period were metallurgists of various types, carpenters, potters, leatherworkers, painters, textile workers, etc. The State also employed specific artisans, such as armorers and shipbuilders, who were exempted from tax for their services. Others, who worked at the state mines and workshops, were liable to pay taxes. Some worked individually while others were part of associations caked as Shreshtin or Puga became increasingly large and complex. These organizations helped their members form a community that further helped them trade. States approved these associations as they facilitated the collection of taxes. It acted like a modern web where buyers and sellers could meet and finalize the trade. The findings of Black Polished Ware from the Ganges Valley in south India indicated the extent of the trade.
Megasthenes’ thorough account of the Mauryan capital offers insight into how towns were controlled and which elements of the urban economy were regulated in the interest of the State. He tells us that Pataliputra was administered by thirty officials divided into six Committees of five members each. Of these six Committees, four were related to economic activity. These were Committees dealing with industrial arts, trade, and commerce, supervising the public sale of manufactured goods, and collecting tax on articles sold. The other two committees were concerned with the welfare of foreigners and the registration of births and deaths. The general administration of law and order in the cities was thus essential to ensure the proper functioning of its economic activities.
The sale of produce was strictly monitored. The products were stamped; the quality was assessed by the superintendent of commerce, who is also mentioned in Arthashastra as Panyadhyaksa. His works also included fixing the toll and providing consumer goods worth their money. The tax was fixed at one-fifth of the value of the commodity, and, in addition, there was a trade tax of one-fifth of the toll. Any tax evasion resulted in heavy punishment. Products were priced keeping in mind the cultivator and the buyer. This all further depended on the control of the route by the empire. Any borrowed money would attract an interest of 15 percent, and if the liability is high, such as in the case of a sea voyage, the rate will go up to 60 percent.
Excavation from the Mauryan period showed an excellent level of improvement in the standard of living. Domestic housing was made of brick, although what is thought to be the palace and the audience hall at Pataliputra were of stone. The town was occupied by artisans, merchants, and government officials. According to the eyewitness account of Megasthenes, the palace at Pataliputra was primarily made of timber. It was regarded to exceed in grandeur and splendor the palaces of Susa and Ecbatana, its gilded pillars decked with golden vines and silver birds. The structures were in a large park with fish ponds and many attractive plants and bushes. Pataliputra is the only Mauryan city of that period with monumental architecture. Such architecture is often seen as a statement of imperial power and presence. Later remains of stone pillars, including one virtually entire, with their round tapering shafts and flawless polish, suggest that Ashoka was responsible for constructing the stone columns, which replaced the earlier wooden ones. In addition, Ashoka was responsible for constructing multiple stupas, which were massive domes and bore emblems of Buddha. The most notable ones are those in Sanchi, Bodhgaya, Bharhut, and maybe Amaravati Stupa.
The production of coins was necessary for the operation of a substantial cash economy, and the number of metals like silver and copper necessary to do so was of paramount importance. Certain gold coins were in circulation too. The Mauryas utilized these, as seen by the numerous punch-marked, mostly silver, coins that are assignable to this time. According to reports, most of these come from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, which comprised the empire’s central portion. Taxila had the liberty to mint their coins.
The Mauryas’ imperial money appears to have been punch-marked silver coins bearing peacock and hill and crescent emblems, known as Pana. Coins with the tree railing, the sun symbol, and the circle with six arrow extensions were also circulated. Copper coins with a punch mark were uncommon. The token currency was copper Masika, and kakini were quarter-pieces of masika. According to Kautilya, the suvarn adhyaksa, laksamana adhyaksa, and rupadarshaka are state officials in charge of currency.
Around 300 BCE, the central Gangetic plains evolved into the epicenter of terracotta art. In Maurya times, terracotta was made on a massive scale. They mainly depicted animals (elephants) and women (mother deities). Though made for everyday use, the stone pillars were artistic statements of the royal court. The enormous, presumably Mauryan figures of yakshas and yakshis, demi-gods and spirits (like the now-famous one from Didarganj) exhibit the same polish perfection level as the pillar capitals, were carved out of stone. The stone elephant rising out of the cliff at Dhauli is of rougher craftsmanship. Stone sculpture was the chosen medium of the affluent and influential and contrasted with the more lowly clay figures.
No mention of ‘Varnas’ or ‘Jati’ in the edicts was inferred as a lack of a caste system during Ashoka’s tenure. However, ample evidence suggested the presence of upper and lower castes. It could be derived from the sculpture representations that were in place. The capitals were surrounded by stone pillars that carried the edicts of Ashoka and had animal motifs. In contrast, lower-class people had the terracotta figure of animals and humans, which were more religious and used for decoration.