From 1860-1913, the estimated annual increase in agricultural output was 2%. Grain production dominated agricultural production throughout the 19th. A century and by 1913, grain cereals comprised almost half of the total agricultural output but were cultivated on nearly 90% of the land.

Institutional factors

The commune

Collective responsibility for tax payments and military recruits in the countryside was sought to be ensured by the functions ascribed to the field Commune and its political Counterpart, The Mir. Family units cultivated the land, but the commune collectively owned it.

The Mir

Family units cultivated the land, but the commune Collectively-owned it. The Mir acted as the smallest local administrative unit in the empire. The system was meant to guarantee every household an equitable share of good and bad land to support itself and to pay its taxes.

The absence of private ownership and periodic redistribution reduced the incentive for peasants to make long-term improvements and invest Capital in their farms even If they could afford to do so.